Abstract
This article deals with the analysis and importance of cultural transfer in the translation process. Translation is a complex process that acts as a bridge between language and culture and cultural transfer is an integral part of the translation process. Apart from grammar and word choice, translators need a deep cultural knowledge and sensitivity in order to understand the cultural elements in the source text and transfer them appropriately to the target language and culture. The article states that translation theories and approaches play an important role in analysing cultural transfer in the translation process. Theories and approaches such as equivalence theory, polysystem theory, cultural translation approach and postcolonial translation theories can be used to understand the translation process and provide a guiding perspective for translators. The impact of cultural transfer on the translation process is vital for the success of the translator. Cultural differences shape translation decisions and enable translators to convey the text accurately. Translators should have a deep cultural knowledge to understand the cultural context of the text and the expectations of the target culture. It also emphasises the interaction between language and culture in the translation process. Language is the main medium through which a culture is expressed, and language and culture influence each other in the translation process. Translators should understand both the language and cultural structure of the source culture and the norms and values of the target culture. In this way, they can accurately convey the text in the translation process. The role of translators in cultural transfer is to accurately convey cultural values and norms when transferring a text from the source culture to the target culture. Translators' responsibilities include interpreting cultural elements correctly, conveying cultural references appropriately and ensuring effective communication in the target culture.
Keywords
Translation Process, Cultural Transfer, Analysis, Grammatical Balance, Target Language, Cultural Authenticity
1. Introduction
Translation is a complex process that acts as a bridge between language and culture. Transferring texts expressed in one language to another also involves cultural transmission. In the translation process, cultural differences need to be considered just as much as grammar rules and word choice. Cultural transmission means effectively conveying the cultural values and meanings of the source text within the context of the target language and culture.
Translators require deep cultural knowledge and sensitivity to understand the cultural elements in the source text and to convey them appropriately to the target language and culture.
Analysing cultural transmission in the translation process is an important aspect of translation studies. This analysis helps us understand the cultural impacts of translation decisions and guide the translation process more effectively. The aim of this article is to provide an in-depth examination of the analysis of cultural transmission in the translation process and to establish a foundation for understanding the challenges that translators may face in this field. Additionally, it will emphasise the role of translation theories and approaches in this analysis and offer a guiding perspective to translators. To present this perspective, I will focus on the methods in Baker’s book “Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account”
| [1] | Baker, M. (2006). Translation and conflict: A narrative account. Routledge. |
[1]
. I will also focus on understanding the basics of translation studies in Bassnett’s book “Translation Studies”
| [2] | Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation studies. Routledge. |
[2]
. Moreover, I will address contemporary translation theories using Gentzler’s book “Contemporary Translation Theories”
| [4] | Gentzler, E. (2001). Contemporary translation theories. Multilingual Matters. |
[4]
.
In the following sections of the article, it will delve deeper into the fundamental concepts of cultural transmission in the translation process, examining translation theories and approaches.
2. Translation Theory and Cultural Transmission
2.1. Translation Theories and Approaches
In the analysis of cultural transmission in the translation process, translation theories and approaches play a significant role. In this section, it will examine some fundamental theories and approaches commonly used in translation studies. These theories and approaches contribute to the understanding of the translation process, the explanation of translation decisions, and the effective execution of cultural transmission.
2.1.1. Equivalence Theory
Equivalence theory emphasises the effort to achieve a balance or equivalence between the source text and the target text. According to this approach, translators strive to convey the meaning of the source text in the target text as accurately as possible, considering linguistic, cultural, and aesthetic elements.
2.1.2. Polysystem Theory
Polysystem theory considers the translation process within a social system. It examines the interactions between the cultural and literary systems in which the source text and the target text exist. According to this approach, translation texts are influenced by cultural, social, and political factors that are effective during the translation process.
2.1.3. Cultural Translation Approach
The cultural translation approach emphasises that translation is not only a linguistic transfer but also a part of cultural transmission. According to this approach, during the translation process, the translator should convey the cultural elements in the source text in a manner that aligns with the values and norms of the target culture
| [3] | Even-Zohar, I. (1990). Polysystem theory. Poetics Today, 11(1), 9-26. |
[3]
.
2.1.4. Postcolonial Translation Theories
Postcolonial translation theories highlight the connection between the translation process and political and power relations. According to this approach, translation occurs under the influence of global power balances, colonialism, and cultural hegemony. Translators should consider different cultural perspectives and subtexts in this context.
These translation theories and approaches can be used to analyse cultural transmission in the translation process. Each offers a different perspective and provides translators with various methods and strategies. By integrating these approaches, it is possible to contribute to a better understanding and more effective execution of cultural transmission in the translation process.
2.2. The Impact of Cultural Transmission on Translation
In the translation process, cultural transmission is a fundamental element that ensures the translated text is appropriately conveyed from the source culture to the target culture. This transmission goes beyond grammatical and lexical levels to include the cultural values, norms, habits, and beliefs contained within the text. Intercultural differences are significant factors that shape translators’ decisions and ensure the correct understanding of the text.
The impact of cultural transmission on translation is vital for the success of the translation process. Translators must be sensitive not only to grammar and word choice but also to cultural references and interpretations to adapt the text to the target culture
| [5] | Hermans, T. (1999). Translation in systems: Descriptive and system-oriented approaches explained. St. Jerome Publishing. |
[5]
.
The impact of cultural transmission on translation can sometimes emerge alongside grammatical challenges. For example, accurately conveying a specific word from one language to the target culture may require additional explanations or finding an original term with cultural meaning. Moreover, some cultural references or idioms might lead to loss of meaning or misunderstandings when transferred from the source culture to the target culture.
Translators must possess deep cultural knowledge to understand the cultural context of the text to be translated and the cultural expectations of the target audience. This enables them to accurately convey cultural references during the translation process and ensure that the text is effectively communicated within the target culture.
In conclusion, the impact of cultural transmission on translation is an integral part of the translation process. Translators must consider cultural elements alongside grammar and word choice to adapt the text appropriately to the target culture.
3. The Role of Cultural Transmission in the Translation Process
3.1. The Interaction Between Language and Culture
Cultural transmission in the translation process involves a complex interaction between language and culture. Language and culture are tightly interconnected, with each influencing and being influenced by the other. Language is the primary tool through which a culture is expressed, facilitating the transmission of cultural values, norms, beliefs, and habits. Therefore, the interaction between language and culture in the translation process plays a crucial role in enabling the translator to convey the text accurately
| [6] | Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. Routledge. |
[6]
.
The interaction between language and culture in the translation process encompasses various aspects. Firstly, language itself is a reflection of a culture. Therefore, translators must have a deep understanding of the linguistic structure and cultural context of the source culture to convey the text appropriately to the target culture.
Similarly, the interaction between language and culture in the translation process necessitates attention to the linguistic and cultural norms of the target culture. Translating a text accurately is not limited to making word-level matches. The cultural references and meanings must be conveyed in a way that allows readers in the target culture to understand and connect with the text. This requires the translator to comprehend the norms, values, and beliefs of the target culture
| [7] | Munday, J. (2008). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge. |
[7]
.
These linguistic elements have unique contexts not only at the word level but also in cultural terms. Translators may use cultural explanations or alternative expressions to accurately convey terms and idioms from the source culture in the target culture. This ensures that the text is understood and effectively communicated to readers in the target culture.
In conclusion, the interaction between language and culture in the translation process is a fundamental element for the translator to successfully convey the text. Understanding the cultural aspects of language ensures that the text is translated appropriately from the source culture to the target culture.
3.2. The Translator’s Role and Responsibilities in Cultural Transmission
In the translation process, translators serve as an important bridge for cultural transmission. Their role is to accurately convey the cultural values, norms, habits, and beliefs of the source culture to the target culture. The translator’s role in cultural transmission is crucial for the success of the translation process and the effective communication of the text within the target culture
| [8] | Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Prentice Hall. |
[8]
.
The translator’s role in cultural transmission involves understanding the text from both the source culture and the target culture perspectives and balancing these two cultures. This requires considering not only the language but also the cultural context.
The responsibilities of the translator in cultural transmission include accurately conveying the cultural elements and idioms from the source text to the target culture. In this process, translators should strive to explain cultural references and meanings in a way that readers in the target culture can understand or find an appropriate equivalent. Additionally, they must make translation decisions that respect cultural norms and sensitivities, ensuring the preservation of the cultural context in the translated text.
Translators can add explanations, footnotes, or culturally significant details to facilitate the target audience’s understanding of the text. This ensures that the text is comprehensible and effectively communicated within the target culture. Acting as cultural ambassadors during the translation process, translators balance the richness of the source culture with the expectations of the target culture
| [9] | Pym, A. (2010). Exploring translation theories. Routledge. |
[9]
.
In conclusion, the translator’s role and responsibilities in cultural transmission determine the quality of the translation process. By accurately conveying the cultural values, norms, and meanings of the texts, translators reflect the richness of the source culture within the target culture.
4. Challenges in Cultural Transmission
Difficulties in Translating Cultural Concepts
In the translation process, cultural transmission presents a series of challenges for translators. Particularly, the difficulties encountered in translating cultural concepts represent a critical area that requires careful attention to achieve accurate transmission. These challenges necessitate a deep understanding of both linguistic and cultural contexts and consideration of the sensitivities of the target culture.
One difficulty in translating cultural concepts arises from the differences between cultures. Each culture possesses its own unique norms, values, beliefs, and habits. For instance, the concept of social hierarchy in some cultures may not have a direct equivalent in another culture. In such cases, translators must strive to understand the norms of the target culture and shape the translation accordingly
| [10] | Snell-Hornby, M. (2006). The turns of translation studies: New paradigms or shifting viewpoints? John Benjamins Publishing. |
[10]
.
Another challenge stems from the variability of language and cultural context. Language is the vehicle through which cultural concepts are expressed, and each language has its own grammatical structure and vocabulary. Therefore, accurately translating a cultural concept requires the translator to understand both the linguistic structure of the source culture and that of the target culture. In this situation, it is crucial for translators to make careful choices and evaluate their translation decisions within the cultural context.
Additionally, another difficulty in translating cultural concepts may arise in the transmission of linguistic elements such as wordplay, idioms, or proverbs. These expressions carry meaning not only at the word level but also within the cultural context. Thus, translating such expressions requires careful attention to convey the correct meaning.
In summary, the challenges in translating cultural concepts demand that translators possess a profound understanding of both the source and target cultures. This enables them to navigate the complexities of cultural transmission and ensure that the translated text resonates accurately within the target culture.
5. Methods of Analysing Cultural Transmission
5.1. Methods Used for Analysing Cultural Transmission in the Translation Process
Analysing cultural transmission in the translation process is an important step for translators to produce accurate translations. This analysis involves various methods to understand how the translation has conveyed cultural aspects from the source culture to the target culture and whether the cultural context has been accurately reflected. Some commonly used methods for analysing cultural transmission in the translation process include:
5.1.1. Comparative Analysis
This method aims to evaluate the accuracy of cultural transmission by comparing the source text with its translation. It helps to identify discrepancies and ensure that cultural elements are correctly conveyed.
5.1.2. Collaborative Work Among Translation Teams
Collaboration between translation teams is essential for analysing cultural transmission during the translation process. Translators from different cultural backgrounds can work together to ensure the translation is culturally accurate. By evaluating each other’s perspectives, they can better understand cultural differences and transmissions.
5.1.3. Cultural Equivalence Studies
Cultural equivalence studies are another method used to analyse cultural transmission in translations. Translators can use the results of these studies to produce translations that accurately reflect the cultural context.
5.1.4. Surveys and Interviews
Surveys and interviews are another method used to analyze cultural transmission in the translation process. Translators can conduct surveys to determine the views and expectations of readers in the target culture or conduct interviews with cultural experts.
These methods help translators ensure that their translations accurately convey the cultural elements and context of the source text, ultimately leading to more effective and culturally appropriate translations.
5.2. Criteria for Evaluating the Cultural Transmission of Texts
In the translation process, it is crucial to evaluate whether the cultural transmission of texts has been accurately achieved. The criteria used for evaluating the cultural transmission of texts guide translators in determining the quality and effectiveness of their translations. Here are some commonly used criteria for evaluating the cultural transmission of texts:
5.2.1. Grammatical Compatibility
It is important for the translation to be grammatically compatible with the target culture. Translators can assess how they have conveyed the grammatical features and structures of the source text into the target culture to evaluate the accuracy of cultural transmission.
5.2.2. Cultural References
Another significant criterion to consider when evaluating the cultural transmission of texts is the accurate conveyance of cultural references. Translators can assess how they have transmitted the cultural references from the source text into the target culture to evaluate the cultural richness and coherence of the text.
5.2.3. Preservation of Meaning
An important criterion for evaluating the cultural transmission of texts is the preservation of meaning. Preserving meaning ensures that the thoughts, emotions, and information the text aims to convey are effectively reflected within the cultural context.
5.2.4. Reader Reactions
An important feedback source for evaluating the cultural transmission of texts is reader reactions. Translators can observe how readers in the target culture perceive, understand, and evaluate the text to assess the impact of its cultural transmission.
These criteria help translators ensure that their translations accurately reflect the cultural elements and context of the source text, leading to more effective and culturally appropriate translations.
6. Case Studies and Analyses
Analysis of Cases Where the Cultural Transmission of Texts Was Successful or Unsuccessful
In the translation process, the cultural transmission of texts can sometimes be successful and other times result in failure. Examining several cases to understand how cultural transmission is affected and why it fails in some instances is crucial.
1) Case I: Translation of the Novel “X”
The novel “X” is a highly popular work in the source culture. However, instances of unsuccessful cultural transmission were observed in the translation. For example, local idioms and slang in the source text lost their meaning in the target culture. Consequently, the novel failed to have the same impact on readers in the target culture. This case highlights the importance of including local cultural elements in addition to language in cultural transmission.
2) Case II: Translation of the Article “Y”
The article “Y,” published in a scientific journal, addresses a cultural topic. The cultural transmission of the text was successfully achieved during the translation process. The translator effectively conveyed local cultural references from the source text in a way that readers in the target culture could understand. As a result, the article had the same impact on readers in the target culture and successfully conveyed the cultural context. This case demonstrates that the cultural sensitivity and competence of the translator are critical for successful cultural transmission.
3) Case III: Subtitle Translation of the Game “Z”
The game “Z” is a video game that appeals to players from different cultures. However, instances of unsuccessful cultural transmission were identified during the subtitle translation of the game. For example, explanations, local jokes, or cultural references in the source text were not understood or were inadequately conveyed in the target culture. This situation caused a disconnection in cultural understanding among players and affected their gaming experience. This case illustrates the importance of the translator’s understanding of the perceptions and expectations of the target culture for successful cultural transmission.
7. Improving Cultural Transfer
7.1. Enhancing Translators’ Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity
Effective cultural transfer during the translation process requires translators to possess strong cultural knowledge and sensitivity. Translators are responsible for understanding, analysing, and appropriately adapting cultural elements from the source text to the target culture. Therefore, improving translators’ cultural knowledge and sensitivity is crucial for ensuring high-quality and effective cultural transfer.
7.1.1. Cultural Knowledge
Translators must understand the grammar, discourse structures, norms, values, traditions, and other cultural elements of the source culture. They should research and stay updated on the history, literature, art, social structures, and other cultural aspects of the source culture. Additionally, cultural sensitivity ensures that the text is translated in a way that aligns with the local context.
7.1.2. Cultural Training
Translators should receive effective cultural training to understand the differences between source and target cultures. Language training should go beyond grammar and vocabulary to include cultural elements, helping translators gain a deeper understanding of cultural transfer.
7.1.3. Keeping Up with Cultural Changes
Staying informed about cultural changes, trends, and new discourses is essential for enhancing cultural sensitivity. Activities such as participating in cultural events, following local media, and engaging in cultural activities will help translators increase their cultural awareness.
7.1.4. Professional Development
Investing in professional development opportunities such as seminars, workshops, conferences, and translation communities is vital. These activities allow translators to interact with other professionals and share experiences, gaining diverse perspectives on cultural transfer.
Improving translators’ cultural knowledge and sensitivity significantly impacts the quality and effectiveness of cultural transfer in the translation process.
7.2. Strategies for Successful Cultural Transfer
Successful cultural transfer in the translation process requires translators to use careful work and effective strategies. When transferring cultural elements from the source culture to the target culture, it is crucial to convey not only the language but also the cultural codes accurately. Here are some strategies for achieving successful cultural transfer:
7.2.1. Cultural Research
Translators should research the source culture to understand the cultural references in the text they are translating. Studying the history, literature, art, and other cultural aspects of the source culture helps translators gain a deeper understanding of the text and interpret cultural codes accurately.
7.2.2. Understanding the Target Culture’s Perceptions
For successful cultural transfer, it is essential for translators to understand the perceptions and expectations of the target culture. Mastery of norms, values, taboos, and discourse structures in the target culture ensures that the translation is appropriately adapted.
7.2.3. Equivalence Strategies
Translators can use equivalence strategies to ensure cultural transfer. These strategies involve conveying cultural references from the source text with similar or equivalent elements in the target culture. For example, an idiom or proverb from the source culture might be expressed with an analogous metaphor or saying in the target culture.
7.2.4. Explanations and Footnotes
Translators can provide explanations and footnotes to help readers understand cultural elements in the text. This aids readers in grasping the meaning of the text and making sense of cultural references. However, care should be taken to ensure that explanations and footnotes do not disrupt the flow of the text.
7.2.5. Creative Adaptations
Translators can make creative adaptations to achieve cultural transfer. This involves reconstructing cultural references from the source text in a way that is comprehensible to the target culture. Creative adaptations offer flexibility in conveying cultural codes and help the text align with the target culture.
8. Conclusion
In this article, we have explored the analysis of cultural transfer in the translation process and provided a foundation for understanding the challenges translators may face in this area. We emphasised that the translation process is not limited to grammatical and lexical transfers but also involves cultural transfer.
Translation theories and approaches play a crucial role in analysing cultural transfer in the translation process. Theories such as equivalence theory, polysystem theory, cultural translation approach, and postcolonial translation theories offer translators different perspectives, contributing to a better understanding and more effective implementation of cultural transfer.
Translators must consider not only grammatical and lexical choices but also cultural elements to adapt the text appropriately for the target culture. This may involve dealing with grammatical challenges and requires a deep cultural knowledge base.
The interaction between language and culture in the translation process is a key factor for the accurate transfer of the text. Language and culture are closely interconnected, and translators should be attentive to both the linguistic structure and cultural context of the source culture, as well as the language and cultural norms of the target culture. The role of translators in cultural transfer involves conveying cultural values, norms, customs, and beliefs accurately when transferring the text from the source culture to the target culture. This role requires attention to both the language and the cultural context. Responsibilities in cultural transfer include understanding the cultural elements of the source text, adapting them in accordance with the values and norms of the target culture, and ensuring appropriateness in cultural references.
In conclusion, analysing cultural transfer in the translation process is crucial for ensuring the success of translators. Understanding the interaction between language and culture enables more informed translation decisions and allows for a culturally sensitive approach when transferring texts from the source culture to the target culture.
Abbreviations
There is no abbreviation.
Author Contributions
Emirhan Ozturk is the sole author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
References
| [1] |
Baker, M. (2006). Translation and conflict: A narrative account. Routledge.
|
| [2] |
Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation studies. Routledge.
|
| [3] |
Even-Zohar, I. (1990). Polysystem theory. Poetics Today, 11(1), 9-26.
|
| [4] |
Gentzler, E. (2001). Contemporary translation theories. Multilingual Matters.
|
| [5] |
Hermans, T. (1999). Translation in systems: Descriptive and system-oriented approaches explained. St. Jerome Publishing.
|
| [6] |
Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. Routledge.
|
| [7] |
Munday, J. (2008). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge.
|
| [8] |
Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Prentice Hall.
|
| [9] |
Pym, A. (2010). Exploring translation theories. Routledge.
|
| [10] |
Snell-Hornby, M. (2006). The turns of translation studies: New paradigms or shifting viewpoints? John Benjamins Publishing.
|
Cite This Article
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APA Style
Ozturk, E. (2024). Preservation of Cultural Authenticity: Analysing Cultural Transfer in the Translation Process. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation, 10(4), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12
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Ozturk, E. Preservation of Cultural Authenticity: Analysing Cultural Transfer in the Translation Process. Int. J. Appl. Linguist. Transl. 2024, 10(4), 61-66. doi: 10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12
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Ozturk E. Preservation of Cultural Authenticity: Analysing Cultural Transfer in the Translation Process. Int J Appl Linguist Transl. 2024;10(4):61-66. doi: 10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12
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@article{10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12,
author = {Emirhan Ozturk},
title = {Preservation of Cultural Authenticity: Analysing Cultural Transfer in the Translation Process
},
journal = {International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation},
volume = {10},
number = {4},
pages = {61-66},
doi = {10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijalt.20241004.12},
abstract = {This article deals with the analysis and importance of cultural transfer in the translation process. Translation is a complex process that acts as a bridge between language and culture and cultural transfer is an integral part of the translation process. Apart from grammar and word choice, translators need a deep cultural knowledge and sensitivity in order to understand the cultural elements in the source text and transfer them appropriately to the target language and culture. The article states that translation theories and approaches play an important role in analysing cultural transfer in the translation process. Theories and approaches such as equivalence theory, polysystem theory, cultural translation approach and postcolonial translation theories can be used to understand the translation process and provide a guiding perspective for translators. The impact of cultural transfer on the translation process is vital for the success of the translator. Cultural differences shape translation decisions and enable translators to convey the text accurately. Translators should have a deep cultural knowledge to understand the cultural context of the text and the expectations of the target culture. It also emphasises the interaction between language and culture in the translation process. Language is the main medium through which a culture is expressed, and language and culture influence each other in the translation process. Translators should understand both the language and cultural structure of the source culture and the norms and values of the target culture. In this way, they can accurately convey the text in the translation process. The role of translators in cultural transfer is to accurately convey cultural values and norms when transferring a text from the source culture to the target culture. Translators' responsibilities include interpreting cultural elements correctly, conveying cultural references appropriately and ensuring effective communication in the target culture.
},
year = {2024}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Preservation of Cultural Authenticity: Analysing Cultural Transfer in the Translation Process
AU - Emirhan Ozturk
Y1 - 2024/10/31
PY - 2024
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12
DO - 10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12
T2 - International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation
JF - International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation
JO - International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation
SP - 61
EP - 66
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2472-1271
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijalt.20241004.12
AB - This article deals with the analysis and importance of cultural transfer in the translation process. Translation is a complex process that acts as a bridge between language and culture and cultural transfer is an integral part of the translation process. Apart from grammar and word choice, translators need a deep cultural knowledge and sensitivity in order to understand the cultural elements in the source text and transfer them appropriately to the target language and culture. The article states that translation theories and approaches play an important role in analysing cultural transfer in the translation process. Theories and approaches such as equivalence theory, polysystem theory, cultural translation approach and postcolonial translation theories can be used to understand the translation process and provide a guiding perspective for translators. The impact of cultural transfer on the translation process is vital for the success of the translator. Cultural differences shape translation decisions and enable translators to convey the text accurately. Translators should have a deep cultural knowledge to understand the cultural context of the text and the expectations of the target culture. It also emphasises the interaction between language and culture in the translation process. Language is the main medium through which a culture is expressed, and language and culture influence each other in the translation process. Translators should understand both the language and cultural structure of the source culture and the norms and values of the target culture. In this way, they can accurately convey the text in the translation process. The role of translators in cultural transfer is to accurately convey cultural values and norms when transferring a text from the source culture to the target culture. Translators' responsibilities include interpreting cultural elements correctly, conveying cultural references appropriately and ensuring effective communication in the target culture.
VL - 10
IS - 4
ER -
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